| Subregion | Total Population | Foreign-born Population | Percent Foreign-born |
|---|---|---|---|
| New York City | 8,258,035 | 3,093,845 | 37.5 |
| Inner Counties | 8,999,772 | 2,618,573 | 29.1 |
| Outer Counties | 5,707,097 | 836,070 | 14.6 |
6 Immigrant New York in a Regional Context
The initial impacts of the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act within the New York metropolitan region were most evident in New York City, which for the first time received large numbers of immigrants from Latin America, Asia, and the non-Hispanic Caribbean. Gradually, new patterns of immigrant settlement emerged. While New York City continued to be the primary destination for immigrants in the area, counties adjacent to New York City became secondary destinations of settlement as many immigrants migrated out of the city to make their homes in suburban counties. In recent decades, these counties have become primary destinations in their own right with many newly arrived immigrants bypassing the five boroughs in favor of other parts of the region. These flows have given rise to enclaves of immigrants across the region.
This chapter first examines overall patterns of immigrant settlement in the New York metropolitan region. For this purpose, counties in the region are subdivided into three subregions: New York City, the inner ring of counties that are nearest the city, and the outer counties along the region’s periphery. The next section examines the role of the foreign-born in the population growth of each county in the subregion and its impact on the racial/Hispanic composition of the overall region. The third section then analyzes immigrant settlement patterns by area of origin and country of birth for each subregion and county. The final section highlights how settlement patterns of groups in the region vary across the neighborhood income spectrum.
6.1 The New York Metropolitan Region and its Subregions
The New York metropolitan region is the largest in the United States, encompassing 23 million people across 31 counties and 12,600 square miles. For the purposes of this analysis, the region is divided into three subregions: the five boroughs of New York City at its core, surrounded by a ring of 26 inner and outer counties in New York State, New Jersey, and Connecticut (Figure 6.1). The inner ring comprises 12 counties: Nassau, Rockland, and Westchester in New York State; Bergen, Essex, Hudson, Middlesex, Morris, Passaic, Somerset, and Union in New Jersey; and Fairfield in Connecticut. The outer ring consists of 14 counties: Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Suffolk, Sullivan, and Ulster in New York State; Hunterdon, Mercer, Monmouth, Ocean, Sussex, and Warren in New Jersey; and Litchfield and New Haven in Connecticut.
Percent Foreign-born by County
New York Metropolitan Region, 2023
New York City and the inner counties accounted for three-quarters of the region’s population, 36 percent and 39 percent, respectively (Figure 6.2). However, the city occupies only 2 percent of the region’s land area, resulting in a population density of about 27,500 persons per square mile (Figure 6.3). In contrast, population density in the inner counties averaged 2,700 persons per square mile, ranging from a high of 15,300 in Hudson county to a low of 1,100 in Morris county. The most populous inner county was Nassau, with 1.4 million people, followed by Westchester (990,800), Fairfield (959,100), and Bergen (957,700). The inner counties had a relatively high share of immigrants, a reflection of their evolution into major destinations for post-1965 immigrants. While 37 percent of New York City’s population was foreign-born, Hudson county—just across the river—had an even higher share at 41 percent, exceeding every other county in the region except Queens (Figure 6.1 and Figure 6.3). Other counties with substantial percentages of immigrants included Middlesex, Passaic, Union, Bergen, Essex, Somerset, and Westchester (each more than one-quarter foreign-born), as well as Fairfield, Nassau, Rockland, and Morris (each 20 percent or more foreign-born). Overall, the inner counties were home to 2.6 million foreign-born residents comprising 29 percent of their overall population.
Total and Foreign-born Population by Subregion
New York Metropolitan Region, 2023
Total Population
Foreign-born Population
Share of Total Population by Nativity and County
New York Metropolitan Region, 2023
The inner counties had many places with high immigrant concentrations—defined as census tracts where the share of immigrants was in the 75th percentile or higher within the subregion1 (Figure 6.4). These included cities, townships, and boroughs in New Jersey that were located across the Hudson River: Fort Lee, Hackensack, Garfield, and Cliffside Park in Bergen county; farther inland in the city of Passaic in Passaic county; Jersey City, Union City, and West New York in Hudson county; and Elizabeth, Linden, and Union in Union county; and farther south in Edison and New Brunswick in Middlesex county. North of the Bronx, areas with high proportions of immigrants included Yonkers, Mt. Vernon, and New Rochelle in the southern section of Westchester county, and Stamford in Fairfield county. To the east of New York City, across the Queens border in Nassau county, Hempstead, Elmont, and Valley Stream had high foreign-born concentrations. High immigrant shares were also evident in Dover in Morris county and in North Plainfield in Somerset county.
The outer counties, with 5.7 million people, accounted for one-quarter of the region’s population. These counties were more sparsely populated, with densities ranging from 1,700 persons per square mile in Mercer to 80 persons per square mile in Sullivan; the average was 600 persons per square mile. Suffolk was, by far, the most populous county in the outer ring (1.5 million), followed by New Haven (862,000), Ocean (659,200), and Monmouth (642,800). Generally, counties in the outer ring had a population less than 20 percent foreign-born, the exception being Mercer county, which was 28 percent foreign-born. Places with high immigrant concentrations in the outer counties included Poughkeepsie in Dutchess county and Newburgh in Orange county, both on the Hudson River. Middletown in the western section of Orange county, and Kingston in Ulster county also had high proportions of immigrants. In Monmouth county, there were two immigrant clusters, one centered around Long Branch on the Jersey Shore, the other to the west around Freehold and Marlboro. In adjacent Mercer county, Princeton and Trenton had high immigrant concentrations, and so did Toms River, farther south, in Ocean county. In Suffolk county, which had the largest immigrant population in the outer ring, there was a notable band of immigrant settlement along the border with Nassau county, in Huntington, and east into Babylon and Islip. Another stretch of high immigrant concentrations began in Riverhead, extending east toward East Hampton on the south fork of Long Island. In Connecticut, there were high immigrant concentrations along I-95 in New Haven and West Haven in the outer county of New Haven.
While population in the region was heavily concentrated in New York City and its adjacent inner counties (Figure 6.2), these areas accounted for an even greater share of the foreign-born. Of the 6.5 million foreign-born in the region in 2023, just under one-half lived in New York City (47 percent), while 40 percent lived in the inner counties; just 13 percent of immigrants made their home in the outer counties.
Census Tracts with High Foreign-born Concentrations*
New York Metropolitan Region, 2019-2023
* Census tracts with a share of immigrants in the 75th percentile or higher, calculated separately for each subregion
6.2 Population Growth in the Subregions, 1900 to 2023: The Role of the Foreign-born
Since the turn of the 20th century, the New York metropolitan region experienced dramatic growth, more than tripling in size—from 6.2 million in 1900 to 23.0 million in 2023 (Table 6.1 and Figure 6.5). This growth has been fueled by the entry of immigrants and their U.S.-born descendants. Over this period, New York City has remained the region’s densely populated core, but its share of the region’s population has declined, from 56 percent in 1900 to 36 percent in 2023, as growth in the region outpaced increases in the city.
Population by Nativity and Subregion
New York Metropolitan Region, 1900 to 2023
Population by Subregion
New York Metropolitan Region, 1900 to 2023
In the first decade of the last century, New York City’s population increased 39 percent, from 3.4 million in 1900 to 4.8 million in 1910. This was largely due to the influx of European immigrants to the city, reflected in a 53 percent increase in the foreign-born population. Overall population growth in the inner counties was even faster (42 percent), with the foreign-born component increasing 55 percent. With immigration curtailed in the mid-1910s due to World War I, and again in the early 1920s due to restrictive immigration legislation, population growth moderated, with New York City’s population increasing 18 percent in the 1910s and 23 percent in the 1920s. The inner counties continued to grow faster than the city in both decades. Nonetheless, for both New York City and the inner counties, increases in the native-born population were far greater than those for the foreign-born.
By 1930, New York City’s population totaled 6.9 million, having more than doubled in size over the preceding three decades. While the city’s population growth was considerable, the inner counties grew even faster, increasing by a factor of 2.4, from 1.7 million in 1900 to 4.2 million in 1930. As a result, the inner counties’ share of the region’s population increased from 28 percent in 1900 to 33 percent in 1930; New York City’s share declined by less than 1 percentage point, to 55 percent in 1930. The outer counties experienced the slowest growth of any subregion, and their share of the region’s population declined, from 17 percent to 12 percent during this period.
With the onset of the Great Depression, immigration plunged in the 1930s and remained low in the early 1940s due to World War II. While immigration bounced back in the years after World War II, it did not reach levels seen earlier in the century due to restrictive federal immigration policies that were still in place; moreover, cohorts that arrived at the turn of the century were aging. As a result, the region’s foreign-born population, which peaked at 3.6 million in 1930, declined in each of the following four decades, falling to 2.5 million in 1970 (Table 6.1 and Figure 6.6). Nevertheless, growth in the native-born population fueled overall increases each decade, bringing the region’s population to 19.7 million by 1970. This growth reflected the combined fertility of both immigrants and the native-born amid the Baby Boom, along with inflows of domestic migrants from other parts of the country.
Foreign-born Population by Subregion
New York Metropolitan Region, 1900 to 2023
Once again, patterns of growth varied by subregion. New York City had the lowest growth between 1930 and 1970. During this period, New York City’s overall population increased from 6.9 million to 7.9 million, a new peak, but it accounted for just 40 percent of the region’s population in 1970. In comparison, the inner counties experienced faster overall growth during this period, and by 1970 had surpassed New York City’s population, which remains true today. The outer counties, which had lagged behind the other subregions in growth, had the fastest population increase between 1930 and 1970. During this period, their population grew from 1.6 million to 3.9 million, and their share of the region’s population increased from 12 percent to 20 percent. The growth in the inner and, to a lesser extent, the outer counties was partly due to out-migrants from New York City (both native- and foreign-born) settling in those subregions.
The passage of the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act led to a resurgence in immigration, bolstering the foreign-born population. By 1980, the foreign-born population in the New York metropolitan region was nearly 3 million, rising to 3.7 million in 1990, and to 5.2 million in 2000—over 2.5 times the immigrant population a century earlier (Table 6.1 and Figure 6.6). This upward trajectory continued in the first decades of the 21st century, with the foreign-born population passing 6.1 million in 2013 and reaching a record high of 6.5 million in 2023.
Nevertheless, the foreign-born in the region represented a smaller share of the region’s total population in 2023 (29 percent) than in 1910, when 35 percent of the region was foreign-born (Table 6.1). New York City accounted for 47 percent of the region’s foreign-born population in 2023, down from two-thirds a century earlier; the outer counties accounted for 13 percent, while the inner counties were home to 40 percent of the foreign-born, a new high (Figure 6.6). This shift was driven in part by faster growth of the foreign-born population in the inner counties, compared with the city, highlighting the region-wide impact of post-1965 foreign-born settlement.
The increasing foreign-born presence helped stabilize the region’s population, which had declined from 19.7 million in 1970 to 19.2 million in 1980 despite the influx of immigrants (Table 6.1 and Figure 6.5), before climbing to 21.5 million by 2000. In the 1970s New York City suffered steep population losses, compared to modest declines in the inner counties and growth in the outer counties. By the 1990s, however, growth in the city surpassed that of the inner and outer counties, before once again lagging in the post-2000 period. The entry of immigrants played a crucial role in shoring up the population of New York City and the inner counties, both of which experienced a decline in their native-born populations in most decades in the post-1970 period.
In the outer counties, however, both native- and foreign-born populations increased (partly fueled by inflows from the inner counties). Since the 1970s, the outer counties have usually had the fastest growth of any subregion, and by 2023, they accounted for one-quarter of the region’s population, a 5 percentage point increase since 1970. In contrast, the city’s share of the regional population declined sharply, to 36 percent, while the share of inner counties fell slightly, to 39 percent.
6.2.1 Population Growth by County, 1970 to 2023
For each county in the region, Table 6.2 displays population by nativity, from 1970, soon after the enactment of the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act, to 2023. Many counties in the outer ring, along with those on the periphery of the inner ring, are now experiencing immigration as a major factor in mitigating population decline resulting from decreases in the native-born population—50 years after this pattern first emerged in New York City and its neighboring inner-ring counties.
Population by Nativity and County
New York Metropolitan Region, 1970 to 2023
In the 1970s as New York City skirted bankruptcy, its population declined more than 10 percent to 7.1 million in 1980. This decline was caused by massive outflows from the city, primarily to the inner counties. Despite these flows, Nassau, Essex, Bergen, Westchester, Union, and Passaic counties lost population as many of their own residents moved away, often to the fringes of the inner ring or to the outer counties. Immigration played a crucial role in reversing these population losses in subsequent decades. In Westchester county, for example, the foreign-born population more than doubled, from 106,600 in 1970 to 260,800 in 2023, helping the county reach a new population peak of 990,800 in 2023. This came about despite declines in native-born residents during the 1970s and 1980s, and only modest growth thereafter. As a result, the foreign-born share in Westchester county climbed from 12 percent in 1970 to 26 percent in 2023. A similar process occurred in Passaic county, where the native-born population declined nearly every decade from 1970 to 2023. However, foreign-born growth was sufficient to offset these losses, helping Passaic cross the 500,000 mark, with the foreign-born share increasing from 12 percent to 35 percent during this period. While increases in the foreign-born were notable in Nassau and Essex counties, they were not sufficient to counteract native-born losses. Consequently, their 2023 populations remained below their 1970 peaks, while the share of the foreign-born increased.
Hudson county stands out in the inner ring as its population peaked as early as 1930 at 690,700 (data not shown). The population declined each decade thereafter, reaching a low of 553,100 in 1990, but subsequently increased in each following decade, attaining a new peak of 705,500 in 2023. This growth was driven by steady increases in the foreign-born population and substantial gains among the native-born. As noted earlier, Hudson had the highest immigrant concentration among the inner counties, with immigrants comprising 41 percent of the county’s population in 2023, highlighting the ongoing role of the foreign-born in sustaining population growth. Unlike Hudson, counties on the fringe of the inner ring—Fairfield, Middlesex, and Somerset—had overall population increases each decade since 1970, though growth tapered off in the most recent decade. The native-born population in these counties has remained unchanged or declined since 2000, while the foreign-born population has continued to grow. As a result, the immigrant share of the population has increased substantially, and the contribution of the foreign-born in sustaining population growth is now evident across all counties in the inner ring.
Every county in the outer ring experienced population growth between 1970 and 2013. Most of the growth in the 1970s and 1980s was due to native-born increases; the foreign-born declined in many counties during this period, a reflection of mortality in older European groups. By 2000, the number and share of immigrants increased in every county, accompanied by substantial increases in the native-born. By 2013, however, the native-born population had either declined or stalled in Mercer, Monmouth, and Putnam counties. For the outer counties as a whole, the increase in the foreign-born population between 2000 and 2013 was more than twice that of the native-born. Consequently, the share of foreign-born residents increased in the subregion, as well as in each county, though counties in the subregion remained overwhelmingly native-born.
For the period from 2013 to 2023, Ocean county continued to grow due to increases in both the native- and foreign-born. However, the majority of counties in the outer ring experienced declines in their native-born populations, with overall population growth attributable solely to increases in the foreign-born. This dynamic further elevated the proportion of foreign-born residents within these counties. Mercer county, for example, had a 10,600 decline in native-born residents, coupled with a 21,800 increase in the foreign-born. As a result, it saw a 5 percentage point increase in its foreign-born share of residents, to 28 percent, the highest foreign-born proportion in the subregion, highlighting how immigrants are now offsetting decreases in the native-born population in the outer counties, a trend seen earlier in New York City and the inner counties.
6.3 Race/Hispanic Origin in the Subregions and Counties, 1970 to 2023
The post-1965 flow of immigrants, which has been primarily from non-European countries, not only helped stabilize the region’s population but has also dramatically changed its racial/Hispanic composition. To examine these changes, the following mutually exclusive racial and ethnic categories are used: Hispanic (irrespective of race); White alone non-Hispanic; Black or African American alone non-Hispanic; and Asian alone non-Hispanic. For the sake of succinctness, these groups will be referred to as Hispanic, White, Black, and Asian, respectively.2 (See Box 7.6 for race and Hispanic origin categories available in census data.)
White residents comprised the overwhelming majority (77 percent) of the region’s population in 1970, a bare majority (50 percent) by 2013, and only a plurality (45 percent) in 2023 (Table 6.3 and Figure 6.7). In numerical terms, the White population declined from 15.3 million to 10.4 million during this period. While the Black population has increased, it has grown relatively slowly; its share, which was 13 percent in 1970, peaked at 16 percent by 1990, but declined in each subsequent decade, to 14 percent in 2023 (Table 6.4). In contrast to the declining shares of White and Black populations, the Hispanic population’s share nearly tripled, from 9 percent in 1970 to 25 percent in 2023. In absolute terms, the Hispanic population in 2023 (5.7 million) was 77 percent larger than the Black population (3.3 million), primarily a result of large immigrant flows from Latin America. Asians experienced the largest proportionate growth, with their share increasing 18-fold, from 0.6 percent in 1970 to 11 percent in 2023.3
White Non-Hispanic Population by County
New York Metropolitan Region, 1970 to 2023
Percent White Non-Hispanic by Subregion
New York Metropolitan Region, 1970 to 2023
New York City experienced the steepest decline in the share of White residents, due to both the entry of non-European immigrants and the outflow of native-born White residents. In 1970, the White population accounted for 63 percent of the city’s population, and by 1980, their share dropped to 52 percent, the last decennial census in which they comprised a majority of the population. By 2023, the White population accounted for just under one-third of the population but remained the largest race/Hispanic origin group in New York City.
While the White population also remained the largest race group in the inner counties, their share of the population declined significantly—from 86 percent in 1970 to 46 percent in 2023—with all 12 inner counties recording a decrease during this period. In 1970 and 1980, each inner county had a White population majority. However, starting in 1990, White residents became a minority in Essex and Hudson counties, with Black and Hispanic populations, respectively, comprising a plurality in subsequent decades. By 2023, the White population had also become a minority in Passaic and Union counties, and were a plurality in Westchester, Somerset, and Middlesex counties. In the coming decade, Bergen—where White residents were a slim majority in 2023—and Nassau counties are both likely to shift from majority-White to plurality-White.
The overall White population of the outer counties increased from 3.5 million in 1970 to 4.2 million in 2000, before declining to 3.7 million in 2023. With faster growth among other race/Hispanic groups, the White share of the population declined from 91 percent in 1970 to 65 percent in 2023. The Hispanic population (18 percent) was the largest non-White group in the outer counties in 2023, followed by Black (8 percent) and Asian (4 percent) residents. Between 1970 and 2000, just 3 of the 14 outer counties—Mercer, New Haven, and Suffolk—experienced a decline in the number of White residents during at least one decade. In the subsequent period, every county except Ocean experienced an absolute decline in their White populations by either 2013 or 2023, leading to a further decrease in their share of the overall population. Nevertheless, the White population remained a majority in every outer county in 2023, except for Mercer, where they comprised a plurality of 42 percent. Litchfield and Ocean counties were at the other end of the spectrum, with about 8-in-10 residents identifying as White.
Race/Hispanic Origin by County
New York Metropolitan Region, 1970 to 2023
6.4 Area of Origin and Country of Birth
While the previous section examined changes in the race/Hispanic composition of the region’s overall population, this section focuses specifically on its foreign-born residents. It highlights areas of origin and the top source countries for each subregion. For the region’s largest immigrant groups, it also shows their distribution across subregions, as well as their presence in each county of the region.
Immigrant areas of origin differ considerably across the region (Figure 6.8). Immigrants in New York City, for example, were less likely to be from Latin America (32 percent) than those in both the inner and outer counties (41 percent each). In contrast, immigrants from the non-Hispanic Caribbean were far more concentrated in the city, making up 17 percent of its foreign-born population, compared to just under 10 percent in both the inner and outer counties. Asian- and European-born immigrants each made up 30 percent and 14 percent, respectively, of New York City’s foreign-born population—figures that closely matched those of the inner counties (29 percent and 14 percent), but contrasted with the outer counties, where Asian immigrants comprised a smaller share (24 percent) and European immigrants a larger one (nearly 20 percent).
Area of Origin of the Foreign-born by Subregion
New York Metropolitan Region, 2019-2023
For the top immigrant source countries in the region, Figure 6.9 illustrates the striking differences in their settlement patterns, particularly in terms of concentration in New York City compared to other parts of the region. Historically, newly arrived immigrants have been drawn to New York City largely because of the availability of housing and jobs. In contrast, immigrant groups that have been in the United States longer have a stronger presence in the surrounding region. For these older, primarily European immigrant groups, a large portion initially settled in the city, but as with their native-born counterparts, many eventually moved to the suburbs and smaller cities in the region. Although newer entrants overall are still more likely to be concentrated in New York City, the pattern differs significantly by group. More than 80 percent of the region’s Bangladeshi immigrants and 75 percent of those from Guyana resided in New York City. In contrast, the inner counties accounted for 40 percent of the region’s foreign-born population but were home to 71 percent of immigrants from India and 65 percent from Brazil. In the outer counties, immigrants from El Salvador, Guatemala, Italy, and Poland were disproportionately represented.
Area of Origin and Country of Birth by Subregion
New York Metropolitan Region, 2019-2023
Dominican (677,600) and Chinese (565,500) immigrants, the latter including those from mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, were the largest foreign-born groups in the region (Table 6.5). A significant share of each group was concentrated in New York City, with 58 percent of Dominicans and 70 percent of Chinese immigrants residing there (Figure 6.9). Since nearly one-half of the region’s immigrant population lives in the city, New York’s leading foreign-born groups often mirror those of the broader metropolitan area, as was the case with Dominican and Chinese immigrants. The Dominican-born population had strong representation in the inner counties of Passaic (48,600), Hudson (36,500), Middlesex (31,500), Westchester (28,500), Bergen (23,900), and Essex (17,800), as well as in the outer counties of Suffolk (17,500), New Haven (7,500), and Mercer (6,200) (Table 6.6). Chinese immigrants had notable populations in Nassau (27,200), Middlesex (18,500), Hudson (17,700), and Bergen (14,800) counties, and a substantial presence in the outer counties of Suffolk (9,900), New Haven (7,800), and Monmouth (6,500).
Top Source Countries of the Foreign-born Population by Subregion
New York Metropolitan Region, 2019-2023
Country of Birth* by County
New York Metropolitan Region, 2019-2023
* Top countries of birth for the New York metropolitan region
In contrast to Dominican- and Chinese-born immigrants who were concentrated in New York City, over 80 percent of Indians lived outside the city (Figure 6.9). They were the region’s third-largest immigrant group, with 278,700 residents in the inner counties and 49,900 in the outer counties (Table 6.5). Indians constituted the largest immigrant group in the inner counties, with particularly large populations in Middlesex (97,700), Hudson (40,100), Nassau (26,600), and Somerset (24,300) counties. They also had a notable presence in the outer counties of Mercer (18,700) and Monmouth (7,400), creating a significant concentration that spanned the inner-outer county boundary in central New Jersey. Other major Indian populations were found in the inner counties of Bergen (20,900) and Morris (19,300).
While the overall Asian distribution by subregion mirrored that of the total immigrant population, there were large differences by country of birth. As noted earlier, more than 4-in-5 Bangladeshis lived in the city, as did 70 percent of Chinese immigrants, but over 80 percent of Indians resided outside the city. The inner and outer ring of counties were also home to two-thirds of Filipinos and 60 percent of Koreans. Bergen county had the region’s largest Korean immigrant population (42,800), comprising the county’s largest immigrant group and more than one-half of all Koreans in the inner counties.
Ecuador ranked as the fourth-largest source of immigrants in the region and the second-largest from Latin America, after the Dominican Republic. Fifty-five percent of Ecuadorians lived outside the city, with a substantial presence in the inner counties of Essex (28,100), Hudson (19,700), and Fairfield (14,600), as well as the outer county of Suffolk (15,100). Mexican immigrants, with a population of 301,400 in the region in 2023, were also broadly distributed; about one-half live in New York City, and there were sizable populations in the inner counties of Westchester (20,400) and Passaic (17,000). In the outer ring, Mexicans had a wide geographic reach, with concentrations in Monmouth (9,400), and in Suffolk, New Haven, and Orange counties (each with over 8,000 residents). Colombians also had a strong presence outside New York City, with nearly two-thirds residing in the inner and outer ring; they were the largest immigrant group in Union county (18,800), numbered nearly 16,000 in both Hudson and Bergen counties, and maintained a notable presence in Suffolk, with 14,300 residents.
A majority of the region’s Jamaican immigrants (281,900) resided in New York City, underscoring the city’s role as the primary center of non-Hispanic Caribbean settlement; only 42 percent lived outside the city. Jamaicans had a notable presence in Westchester (19,700) and Fairfield (12,400) counties and were well-represented in the outer counties of New Haven and Suffolk, each with nearly 8,000 residents. Other non-Hispanic Caribbean source countries—including Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, among the top countries of origin in the city—had an even smaller presence outside the city, with approximately 25 percent of Guyanese and 30 percent of Trinidadians residing in the surrounding counties. In contrast, Haitians had a broader distribution, with 54 percent residing outside the city, and were among the largest immigrant groups in Essex (19,800) and Rockland (9,300) counties.
Among European groups in the inner counties, Poles had their largest presence in Bergen county (11,600), while Italians had a strong presence in Nassau (9,800) and Westchester (9,000) counties. In the outer counties, Italians were more dispersed, with populations concentrated primarily in Suffolk, Monmouth, and Ocean counties. Ukrainian immigrants, along with Russians, differed from most European groups in that they remained heavily concentrated in New York City, which was home to 67 percent of Ukrainians in the region (Figure 6.9) and 61 percent of Russians (data not shown).
6.5 Diverse Patterns of Settlement in the New York Metropolitan Region
Neighborhoods across the New York metropolitan region span the socioeconomic spectrum, with immigrant settlement patterns varying significantly by income level. To better discern these patterns, Figure 6.10 categorizes the region into lower-income areas (defined as census tracts with a median household income at or below the 25th percentile) and upper-income areas (defined as census tracts with a median household income at or above the 75th percentile); census tracts with a median household income between the 25th and 75th percentiles are categorized as middle-income, with income categories determined independently for each subregion.4 Places within each income group have distinct housing and socioeconomic characteristics, and are home to different segments of the immigrant population.
Household Income Level* by Census Tract
New York Metropolitan Region, 2019-2023
* Categorized separately for each subregion
Table 6.7 presents the sociodemographic characteristics of lower-, middle-, and upper-income areas within each subregion for the 2019-2023 period. For each income category, a representative place is identified, and its demographic and socioeconomic attributes are analyzed in greater detail. (Historical data for places in the region are occasionally referenced but are not shown.)
Characteristics of Lower, Middle, and Upper Income Areas*
New York Metropolitan Region, Subregions, and Select Places, 2019-2023
* Categorized separately for each subregion
6.5.1 Lower-Income Areas—Traditional Places of Initial Immigrant Settlement
Most immigrant groups generally begin their American experience on the lower rungs of the socioeconomic ladder. In the New York metropolitan region, lower-income census tracts were home to 1.9 million immigrants (Table 6.7). Since family networks often drive immigration patterns and shape where immigrants settle, lower-income neighborhoods are home to large foreign-born concentrations: New immigrants tend to move into neighborhoods that are home to other immigrants.
In the inner counties, lower-income places included Paterson and Passaic in Passaic county; Bridgeport in Fairfield county; and Union City and West New York in Hudson county. Lower-income areas were on average 39 percent foreign-born, 11 percentage points higher than for the inner counties as a whole. They also had higher population densities, averaging 12,200 persons per square mile, compared to 2,700 persons per square mile in the inner counties overall. The high population densities were related to the presence of a large number of multi-unit structures, defined as buildings with five or more units. Primarily rentals, these multi-unit structures often provide places of initial residence as immigrants establish themselves in the United States.
Lower-income areas with an abundance of multi-unit structures and rental units often showed the most traditional patterns of immigrant settlement. Many lower-income places in the inner and outer counties reflect these patterns, similar to those historically observed in New York City. The process of post-1965 immigrant settlement usually involved newer immigrant groups succeeding longer resident groups who had moved out. Housing vacated by these departing residents was then occupied by newly arrived immigrants. This process of immigrant succession, which is well documented in New York City, has occurred in urban places in the inner and outer counties, resulting in large post-1965 foreign-born concentrations in cities across the New York region. In addition to high population densities, a higher proportion of multi-unit structures, and a greater proportion of rental units, lower-income areas that attract immigrants tend to have an older housing stock and a population that is disproportionately non-White.
West New York in Hudson county, New Jersey, was once home to many newly arrived European immigrants at the turn of the 20th century and now to post-1965 flows. It experienced a robust inflow of immigrants (especially Cubans) in the 1960s; by 1970, the share of the foreign-born was 44 percent. Immigrants continued to settle in West New York in the following decades, and by 2000, the foreign-born concentration had reached a peak of 65 percent (data not shown). Although this share declined slightly by the 2019-2023 period, immigrants still comprised approximately 6-in-10 of the city’s residents (Table 6.7); in this recent period, White residents comprised 14 percent of the population, compared to a majority in 1970. In contrast, Hispanic residents accounted for roughly three-quarters of the population in the 2019-2023 period. West New York illustrates how immigration has reshaped the racial/Hispanic composition of cities in the inner counties. It remains a quintessentially immigrant city, characterized by exceptionally high population density—approximately 52,000 persons per square mile. Nearly two-thirds of housing units exist in multi-unit structures and around 80 percent of the housing stock consists of rental units. These characteristics—previously identified as being common to lower-income areas—are most often found in urban environments, which tend to be the initial destination of immigrants entering the region. West New York had a poverty rate more than twice that of the inner counties as a whole, and the percentage with a college (bachelor’s) degree (34 percent) was nearly 14 percentage points lower than the average for the inner counties.
Household Income Level* by Area of Origin and Country of Birth
New York Metropolitan Region, 2019-2023
* Categorized separately for each subregion
Lower-income areas in the outer counties include cities and townships such as New Haven and Waterbury in Connecticut; Trenton and Lakewood in New Jersey; and Poughkeepsie and Newburgh in New York. Trenton exemplifies many of the characteristics commonly associated with lower-income urban areas, including one-quarter of housing in multi-unit buildings and 64 percent of the housing stock consisting of rental units. In 1970, Trenton had a White population majority; however, it experienced pronounced White flight and population decline over the following decades, and had a Black population majority by 2000 (data not shown). Beginning in the 1990s, the city also experienced a notable influx of immigrants. The foreign-born share of the population nearly doubled during that decade, reaching 14 percent in 2000. By the 2019-2023 period, the immigrant share had doubled again, reaching 29 percent (Table 6.7), contributing to population stabilization. In the same period, the Hispanic population constituted the largest racial/Hispanic group in Trenton, accounting for 44 percent, while the Black population continued to represent a significant share, at 41 percent.
The 1.9 million immigrants in lower-income areas of the region represented 29 percent of all immigrants, compared with 25 percent of the overall population that lived in lower-income areas. Latin American immigrant groups were disproportionately represented in lower-income areas, which were home to 57 percent of Dominicans, and over 4-in-10 Guatemalans, Mexicans, and Brazilians. Overall, 43 percent of Latin American immigrants lived in these areas (Table 6.8 and Figure 6.11).
Household Income Level* by Area of Origin and Country of Birth
New York Metropolitan Region, 2019-2023
* Categorized separately for each subregion
6.5.2 Upper-Income Areas—A Destination for a Growing Number of Immigrants
While lower-income areas, especially in urban settings, have historically been the destination of choice for immigrants, there is now substantial immigrant settlement in wealthier, more suburban communities. Once considered nontraditional destinations, these areas have become home to 1.3 million immigrants in the New York metropolitan region, underscoring the growing foreign-born presence in affluent places.
In the inner counties, upper-income areas had a median household income of $196,900, substantially higher than the overall inner county average of $112,300. These areas included towns such as Greenwich in Fairfield county, which reported a median household income of $198,500, highlighting the economic affluence characteristic of such locations. Other upper-income communities included Mamaroneck and Harrison in Westchester county; Livingston in Essex county; Ridgewood in Bergen county; and Syosset in Nassau county. Collectively, upper-income areas in the inner counties were home to approximately 459,300 immigrants, comprising individuals who arrived directly from their countries of origin as well as those who relocated from other parts of the region or the broader United States.
The housing profile of upper-income areas in the inner counties also differed notably from that of the subregion as a whole. They featured newer housing stock, a lower prevalence of multi-unit structures and rental units, as well as lower population density. Demographically, these communities were disproportionately White—69 percent compared to 47 percent in the inner counties overall—and had significantly higher educational attainment, with 7-in-10 residents holding a college degree, compared to just under one-half for the subregion. These places illustrate how wealthier immigrants have increasingly established themselves in nontraditional destinations—areas historically less associated with immigrant settlement.
In the outer counties, upper-income areas were home to 185,400 immigrants, residing in communities such as Marlboro and Holmdel in Monmouth county; West Windsor in Mercer county; and Dix Hills in Suffolk county. These areas reflect a pattern of immigrant settlement in more affluent, suburban localities far from the traditional urban core. Marlboro, which was nearly one-quarter foreign-born, illustrates the profile of a socioeconomically advantaged community in the outer counties. The township had a median household income of $176,100—approximately 70 percent higher than the overall average for the outer counties. Its poverty rate was less than one-half that of the outer counties, and the share of college graduates exceeded the outer county average by 25 percentage points.
Upper-income areas across the region were home to 1.3 million immigrants, or nearly one-fifth of the foreign-born population, compared to 26 percent of the total population. European (31 percent) and Asian immigrants (28 percent) had large shares residing in these areas (Table 6.8 and Figure 6.11). Among the top 20 immigrant groups, those from Korea (37 percent), India (34 percent), Italy (32 percent), and China (28 percent) had the highest shares living in upper-income areas. In absolute terms, immigrants from China and India represented the largest foreign-born populations in these communities, with roughly 160,000 and 130,000, respectively.
6.5.3 Middle-Income Areas—Home to a Majority of Immigrants
While the focus of this section has been on lower- and upper-income areas, so as to distinguish old patterns of immigrant settlement from newer trends, it is important to remember that over one-half of immigrants, 3.3 million out of 6.4 million, live in middle-income areas. Middle-income places in the inner counties included Jersey City in Hudson county, Yonkers in Westchester county, Stamford in Fairfield county, Edison in Middlesex county, Fort Lee in Bergen county, and New Hyde Park in Nassau county.
Edison, which was 46 percent foreign-born, had a household income of $124,400, 11 percent higher than the average for the inner counties. Asian Indians comprised a large share of the foreign-born population, and Asians—irrespective of nativity—accounted for a majority of Edison’s overall population. Edison illustrates the way in which many Asian immigrants have advanced economically to establish themselves in suburban enclaves, and how they and their children have helped shape the profile of a middle-income community.
Middle-income areas in the outer counties were home to 369,400 immigrants, residing in communities such as Brentwood and Central Islip in Suffolk county; Lawrence and East Windsor in Mercer county; Naugatuck in New Haven county; and Ocean Township in Monmouth county. Central Islip had one of the larger immigrant populations, numbering 14,200—accounting for 38 percent of the population. It developed largely after World War II, with only 8 percent of its housing stock built before 1950. The median household income was $110,200, exceeding the average for the outer counties, and the Hispanic population comprised a majority. Central Islip is a prime example of a place where Latin American immigrants have leveraged their economic advancement to move into a middle-income suburban area and establish a substantial community.
There were several groups that had a disproportionately large presence in middle income areas—and a smaller presence in lower-income and upper-income communities (Table 6.8 and Figure 6.11). This was especially true of immigrants from the Philippines, Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago, with over 6-in-10 immigrants from these countries living in middle-income areas, compared with less than one-half of the overall population.
6.5.4 Settlement in New York City—A Wide Range of Income Levels
Similar to areas in the inner and outer counties, New York City neighborhoods also span the spectrum from lower- to upper-income. As in the rest of the region, lower-income neighborhoods in the city had the highest share of housing in multi-unit structures (76 percent), particularly in largely immigrant neighborhoods such as Chinatown in Manhattan, Coney Island in Brooklyn, and University Heights in the Bronx. But lower-income areas also include neighborhoods such as Mott Haven-Port Morris, Melrose, Brownsville, Ocean Hill, and East New York that have high-rise public housing, home to primarily low-income, native-born residents. The city’s distinct housing landscape and sociodemographic composition contribute to neighborhood characteristics that are often distinct from those in the region. For instance, while 37 percent of New Yorkers in lower-income neighborhoods were foreign-born, the figure was higher—41 percent—in middle-income neighborhoods. Indeed, middle-income neighborhoods such as Corona, Elmhurst, and Jackson Heights stand out as being among the most densely populated and predominantly immigrant areas in the city. In contrast, upper-income areas encompass a stretch of low-density neighborhoods in Queens such as Glen Oaks, Bellerose, Bayside, and Douglaston, as well as high-density neighborhoods in Manhattan, such as the Upper East and Upper West Sides. Overall, upper-income neighborhoods had relatively high population densities, averaging 16,100 persons per square mile; they included a substantial immigrant presence, with over one-quarter of residents born abroad. Thus, high immigrant concentrations in New York City were a feature of not only lower-income neighborhoods, but of many affluent ones as well.
6.6 Summary
The 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act had a twofold impact on the New York metropolitan region: It increased overall immigration—driven by a surge in arrivals from non-European countries—which, in turn, transformed the region’s racial/Hispanic composition. The initial impacts were most pronounced in New York City, which saw the entry of large numbers of immigrants from the Caribbean, Asia, and Latin America. Over time, however, many of these immigrants left New York City to make their homes in the suburbs of the inner ring of counties that are near the city, as well as in the outer counties along the region’s periphery. In recent decades, these counties have become gateway destinations in their own right as many newly arrived immigrants have bypassed the five boroughs to settle directly in immigrant enclaves across the region. By 2023, New York City was home to just 47 percent of the region’s foreign-born (down 10 percentage points from 1970), the inner counties accounted for 40 percent, while the outer counties were home to 13 percent.
With many parts of the region showing declines in the number of native-born residents, immigrants have helped stem population losses or spur growth across many counties of the region. Increases in immigrant populations alongside decreases in native-born populations, a demographic pattern that first took place in New York City and some adjacent counties, has been replicated in many of the inner counties. The flow of immigrants has also altered the racial/Hispanic composition of the region, as the primarily non-European flow of immigrants has succeeded departing White residents. In 1970, White residents comprised the overwhelming majority of the region’s population, dropping to a narrow majority by 2013, and a plurality in 2023. This trend mirrors New York City’s demographic trajectory, where White residents have comprised a plurality for decades, and is similarly reflected in the inner suburban counties of Westchester, Somerset, and Middlesex. The White population was also a minority in Essex, Hudson, Union, and Passaic, but was not large enough to form a plurality. In the coming decade, Bergen and Nassau counties are likely to shift from majority-White populations to White pluralities.
Increasingly, post-1965 immigrants have made their presence felt in the outer counties, with corresponding declines in the shares of the native-born and White populations, comprised largely of descendants of immigrants from over a century earlier. However, White residents continued to be a majority in every outer county in 2023, except for Mercer, where they constituted a plurality of 42 percent.
Immigrant groups exhibit distinct patterns of residential settlement across the metropolitan region. Although just under one-half of immigrants in the metropolitan region make their home in New York, some groups have even greater concentrations in the city. More than 80 percent of Bangladeshi immigrants and 75 percent of those from Guyana resided in New York City, as did 70 percent of immigrants from Trinidad and Tobago and China, and approximately two-thirds of those from Ukraine. The inner counties were home to 40 percent of the region’s foreign-born population, but were home to 71 percent of immigrants from India, 65 percent from Brazil, 61 percent from Peru, and 55 percent from Korea. In the outer counties, immigrants from El Salvador, Guatemala, Italy, and Poland were disproportionately represented.
Overall, immigrants from Latin America comprised 37 percent of New York City’s foreign-born population, compared to over 41 percent in both the inner and outer counties. In contrast, 17 percent of immigrants in the city were born in the non-Hispanic Caribbean, while just under 10 percent in both the inner and outer counties came from this area of origin. The share of Asian-born immigrants in New York City (30 percent) closely matched that of the inner counties (29 percent) but was higher than in the outer counties (24 percent). Meanwhile, 14 percent of the city’s immigrants were born in Europe, a share similar to that of the inner counties; however, in the outer counties, nearly one-fifth of the immigrant population was European-born.
While the foreign-born have traditionally been concentrated in older cities that historically served as gateways for newly arrived immigrants, many have since advanced economically and can now afford suburban middle-income areas, which today house more than one-half of the region’s foreign-born. Immigrants also have a notable presence in the region’s wealthier urban communities, which account for about one-fifth of the immigrant population. Once viewed as nontraditional destinations, these areas now house about 1.3 million immigrants, highlighting the substantial foreign-born presence in affluent areas.
Given the differences in the percentage foreign-born between the subregions, areas with high foreign-born concentrations were defined separately for census tracts in New York City, the inner counties, and the outer counties.↩︎
Mutually exclusive race/Hispanic groups were not tabulated in 1970. To make the 1970 data comparable with those of subsequent censuses, a count of the White non-Hispanic population was derived by combining full count race data with the sample count data on Spanish language speakers. First, the number of Spanish language speakers was used as a proxy for the Hispanic population. Second, the total number of the White population was reduced by the number of Spanish language speakers to derive the White non-Hispanic population. While the assumption that all Spanish language speakers were White is not entirely accurate, it results in a reasonable approximation of the White non-Hispanic population. The total Black population was used as a proxy for the Black non-Hispanic population. For New York City and its five boroughs, however, the counts of White and Black Spanish language speakers were available and used to derive the population of the non-Hispanic White and Black populations. For all counties, Japanese, Chinese, and Filipinos were combined to obtain a count of the Asian non-Hispanic population. The mutually exclusive race/Hispanic groups were then calculated as percentages of the sample count population.↩︎
Unlike previous censuses, separate counts were available for Asians and Pacific Islanders in 2000, 2013, and 2023. In this analysis, Asians and Pacific Islanders are combined in each period to obtain a count that is comparable for all time points.↩︎
For New York City, the threshold for lower median household income tracts was $69,200 and the threshold for upper median household income tracts was $107,800. For the inner counties, these thresholds were $79,000 and $158,500, respectively; for the outer counties, they were $81,500 and $136,000, respectively.↩︎