Selected Demographic Characteristics by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
4 Sociodemographic Profile of the Foreign-born Population
Prior chapters provided important context to understand New York’s foreign-born—their overall flow, top countries of origin, and the patterns of residence of the city’s various immigrant groups. However, to gain a more comprehensive understanding, it is instructive to look at the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of different immigrant groups, and the foreign-born more generally, compared to the native-born. Such a perspective provides context for understanding the varying contributions, experiences, and needs of groups, helping to guide the provision of services, programs, and funding. Immigrants from different countries and different regions of the world vary substantially in age and sex distribution, household type and composition, ability to speak English, educational attainment, income and earnings, poverty status, and labor force participation, among other characteristics. This insight is valuable for those involved in developing policies, planning programs, and providing services for immigrant populations. The needs of the foreign-born can be distinct from those of U.S.-born New Yorkers, with varying challenges across different groups. A deeper understanding of each group’s characteristics allows for the creation of policies and programs that are more tailored, ultimately improving their effectiveness and outcomes.
Data in this chapter come primarily from the 2023 American Community Survey (ACS) 1-year Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) and estimates of foreign-born groups may differ slightly from those presented in other chapters, which usually used ACS Summary File data. The means, medians, distributions, and other summary statistics shown in this chapter for various socioeconomic variables do not represent the full diversity of experiences among individual immigrants and families. Median female earnings of $64,700, for example, indicate the point at which one-half of females earn more than that amount, and one-half earn less, but the median does not convey the potentially wide range of earnings within the group. Similarly, the proportion of a group with limited English proficiency indicates the English language ability of the entire group, but not of any individual member of the group. This chapter provides a snapshot of the characteristics of the foreign-born population and the largest immigrant groups in the city. Differences between groups are discussed only where they are statistically significant.1 Statistically unreliable estimates are displayed in gray in tables throughout the chapter.
4.1 Demographic Characteristics
4.1.1 Age and Sex Ratios
The median age of the foreign-born population in New York City was 50 years, substantially higher than that of the native-born population (31 years) (Table 4.1). This is largely because 29 percent of the native-born are under the age of 18, compared to just 5 percent of immigrants. Immigrants usually arrive in the United States in young adulthood when most childbearing occurs, and most children of immigrants are born in the United States. Only children who migrated to the United States are counted as part of the foreign-born population under 18; as such, only about 10 percent of the 1.6 million children in New York City are foreign-born (Figure 4.1). Groups with the largest proportion under 18 were Bangladeshis and Ecuadorians, at approximately 8 percent of each respective group.
Selected Demographic Characteristics by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
Population Under 18 Years of Age by Nativity
New York City, 2023
Among the native-born, 40 percent were between the ages of 18 and 44, compared to 36 percent for the foreign-born. Recent immigrants (defined as those arriving between 2010 and 2023) are generally younger than those who arrived earlier, and groups with higher proportions of recent arrivals tend to have larger shares of young working-age adults.2 Indians, for example, with 40 percent of their population arriving between 2010 and 2023, had 45 percent falling within the 18 to 44 age range. Comparatively, 18 percent of Italians arrived recently, and 17 percent of the population was between the ages of 18 and 44. Of course, this relationship does not always hold. Among Mexicans, while the share of recently arrived immigrants was below average, an above-average 54 percent of the Mexican population was between the ages of 18 and 44.
Considering older working-age adults ages 45 to 64, 36 percent of immigrants were in this age range, twice the proportion of the native-born at 18 percent. For those ages 65 and over, 23 percent of the foreign-born population fell in this category, compared to about 14 percent of the native-born population. Many immigrant groups are aging, with significant proportions in older age brackets. For example, roughly one-third of Haitians and Trinidadians, both long-established groups experiencing population declines, were 65 or over. The same was true for 29 percent of Chinese and Jamaican immigrants. All of these groups had a median age well above the overall foreign-born median of 50 years. However, Italian immigrants, one of the longest-established groups in the city, had the highest median age at 67.
Sex ratios, or the number of males per 100 females, also differed by nativity. Among the native-born, there were 96 males for every 100 females, while the foreign-born had a lower ratio of 87 males per 100 females. However, there were significant differences among foreign-born groups, largely shaped by their immigration histories.
Mexicans, for example, had one of the highest sex ratios, with 127 males for every 100 females. Other foreign-born groups with high sex ratios include those from the United Kingdom (127 males per 100 females), Ghanaians (122 males), and Pakistanis (122 males). Some immigrant groups experience high sex ratios initially, as men often arrive first to establish themselves before being joined by their spouses and children, which gradually lowers the sex ratio.
In contrast, immigrants from the non-Hispanic Caribbean had among the lowest sex ratios. Sex ratios among Trinidadians, Guyanese, Jamaicans, and Haitians ranged from a high of 85 males per 100 females for Guyanese to a low of 61 males per 100 females for Jamaicans. For these groups, as well as for Dominicans (69) and Colombians (70), women are often in the vanguard of immigration and are later followed by men. A similar trend was seen among Filipinos, who had a sex ratio of 60—one of the lowest among the top 20 immigrant groups. This imbalance is largely due to the historical overrepresentation of nurses, who are predominantly female, among Filipino immigrants. The nursing profession has benefited from favorable immigration policies, demonstrating how immigration law can shape the gender balance of an immigrant group.
4.2 Household Characteristics
4.2.1 Household/Family Type
In the American Community Survey (ACS), a householder is the person listed first on the questionnaire, typically one of the people in whose name the home is owned, being bought, or rented. Family households, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau, are those in which the householder is related to at least one other household member by birth, marriage, or adoption. Family households may be further categorized into three types—each of which may include children or other relatives: married-couple families, families with a male householder with no spouse present, and families with a female householder with no spouse present. In contrast, nonfamily households are those in which no household members are related to the householder, including individuals living alone.
In New York City, 57 percent of all households were family households (Table 4.2). Immigrant households—defined as those with a foreign-born householder—were much more likely to be family households (68 percent) compared to households with a native-born householder (48 percent). (It is important to note that household members may include both native-born and foreign-born individuals, regardless of the householder’s nativity.) South Asian households, in particular, were disproportionately family households—around 9-in-10 households with householders born in Bangladesh and Pakistan were classified as family households. Among the top 20 immigrant groups in New York City, each had a higher share of family households than the native-born population.
Household/Family Type by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
While a large percentage of immigrant households were family households, the composition of these families varied significantly across groups. Among South Asian communities, 79 percent of Bangladeshi households were married-couple families, as were 68 percent of Pakistani households and 57 percent of Indian households—rates notably higher than those for other immigrant groups. In contrast, among immigrants from the non-Hispanic Caribbean and some Latin American countries, families with female householders without a spouse present were disproportionately represented, accounting for roughly 3-in-10 Jamaican, Dominican, Haitian, Trinidadian, and Salvadoran households. With some of the largest immigrant groups predominantly comprised of families with female householders with no spouse present, the overall share of immigrants in such households (18 percent) was higher than that of native-born households (15 percent).
Families with male householders with no spouse present made up less than 5 percent of all native-born households in New York City, compared to 7 percent of immigrant households. Among households headed by Ghanaians, Mexicans, Haitians, Ecuadorians, and Pakistanis, roughly 10 percent or more had a male householder with no spouse present.
The proportion of nonfamily households among immigrants (32 percent) was notably lower than among native-born households (52 percent). The five immigrant groups with the highest proportion of nonfamily households included Koreans and those from four European countries—Russia, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Ukraine—for whom more than 40 percent of households were classified as nonfamily.
The Census Bureau also asks whether household members include unmarried partners (i.e., cohabiting partners), though these households are not included in the family-nonfamily classification. Cohabiting partners made up a relatively small share of all households in New York City, just over 6 percent, with children present in about one-quarter of these households (data not shown). Mexicans and Ecuadorians had the highest proportions of cohabiting couple households, at 14 percent and 8 percent, respectively.
4.2.2 Average Household Size
Average household size (also referred to as persons per household) reflects the typical number of people living in a household. In 2023, the average for all New York City households was 2.4 people (Table 4.3). Immigrant households tended to be larger, with an average size of 2.7, compared to 2.1 for those with a native-born householder. Average household size varied significantly depending on the householder’s country of origin. Bangladeshi households averaged 4.3 people, and Pakistani households averaged 4.1. Mexican and Ecuadorian households also had larger-than-average sizes, at 3.6 persons per household. On the other end of the spectrum, Italian, British, Ukrainian, and Korean households tended to be smaller, ranging from 2.0 to 2.2 persons per household.
Selected Household Characteristics by Country of Birth of Householder
New York City, 2023
4.2.3 Household Tenure
Homeownership rates were similar for foreign-born and native-born households, with just under a third being owner-occupied. However, some foreign-born groups had much higher homeownership rates. About 60 percent of Italian households were owner-occupied, as were more than 50 percent of Chinese households. Among immigrants from the non-Hispanic Caribbean, more than one-half of Guyanese households were owner-occupied, as were around 40 percent of Jamaican and Trinidadian households. Latin American groups generally exhibited lower homeownership rates, with only 9 percent of Dominican households, 11 percent of Mexican households, and 18 percent of Ecuadorian households being owner-occupied.
4.2.4 Overcrowding
Overcrowded households are defined as those with more than one person per room. Approximately 9 percent of all households in New York City were overcrowded. While nativity-related differences were evident across many socioeconomic characteristics, the disparity in overcrowding was particularly striking: 15 percent of foreign-born households were overcrowded, compared to only about 5 percent of native-born households. Certain groups had much higher rates of overcrowding, including Bangladeshis (38 percent), Mexicans (30 percent), and Ecuadorians (26 percent).
While it might be assumed that homeownership correlates with lower levels of overcrowding, some groups with average or high homeownership rates also exhibited high overcrowding rates. For example, although homeownership among Chinese households was significantly higher than homeownership among the native-born, their overcrowding rate was roughly three times higher. Similarly, while 40 percent of Bangladeshi-headed households were owner-occupied, a rate substantially higher than the city average, they also had the highest rate of overcrowding among the top 20 immigrant groups. On the other hand, only 9 percent of Dominican-headed households were owner-occupied, well below the city average for the foreign-born, but their overcrowding rate was similar to that of all foreign-born households.
4.3 English Language Proficiency and Educational Attainment
4.3.1 Limited English Proficiency
Percent with Limited English Proficiency by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
For those who report speaking a language other than English at home, the American Community Survey asks how well they speak English, with response options of “very well,” “well,” “not well,” and “not at all.” Any response other than “very well” for those ages five and over is an indication of limited English proficiency. Just under one-half of the foreign-born population in New York City is limited English proficient, compared to about 7 percent of the native-born population (Figure 4.2).
The share of individuals with limited English proficiency varied widely by country of birth. Those from countries where English is widely spoken tend to be proficient in English. For example, only about 2 percent of Jamaicans had limited English proficiency. Immigrants from countries such as the Philippines, Ghana, and India—many of whom were educated in English in their home countries—reported rates of limited English proficiency well below the foreign-born average. In contrast, groups with the highest levels of limited English proficiency were predominantly Spanish speaking, including those from Mexico (75 percent), Ecuador (75 percent), and the Dominican Republic (72 percent), along with China (73 percent). Colombian-born New Yorkers had a somewhat lower share of limited English proficiency, at 59 percent, compared to those from other Latin American countries.
4.3.2 Educational Attainment of Adults
Among city residents ages 25 and over, 43 percent held a college degree (bachelor’s degree or higher), while 16 percent had less than a high school education (Table 4.4). Educational attainment was notably higher among the native-born population, with one-half having completed college, compared to one-third of the foreign-born population, though there was considerable variation among immigrant groups.
Educational Attainment by Country of Birth for the Population 25 Years and Over
New York City, 2023
Note: Data for those with an associate degree or some college but no degree not shown.
Many Asian groups had a high proportion of college graduates, including 73 percent of Filipinos, 64 percent of Indians, and 57 percent of Koreans. On the other end of the spectrum, just 30 percent of Chinese immigrants were college graduates. European groups were also well educated, with three-quarters of British immigrants, 7-in-10 Russians, and 56 percent of Ukrainians having completed college. However, Italians, most of whom immigrated in earlier decades, had a level of college completion well below the city average. Among Latin Americans, the percentage of Colombian college graduates was at the city average for the foreign-born, and all other groups were substantially lower.
Approximately one-quarter of the foreign-born population ages 25 and over had less than a high school education, compared to about 9 percent of the native-born population. Among Latin American immigrants, more than one-half of Salvadorans lacked a high school diploma, as did 46 percent of Mexicans, 40 percent of Dominicans, and one-third of Ecuadorians. Other countries of origin with higher-than-average proportions of residents without a high school diploma included China (38 percent) and Italy (33 percent).
Non-Hispanic Caribbean groups held an intermediate position. Trinidadians, for example, had a below-average proportion of college graduates (26 percent), but an above-average share of high school graduates (86 percent).
4.3.3 Young Adults Without a High School Diploma
Young Adults Ages 17 to 24 Without a High School Diploma by Country of Birth
New York City, 2019-2023
* The percent of Italians without a high school diploma is zero, but this estimate is not statistically reliable
This section examines young adults, ages 17 to 24, who lack a high school diploma and are not currently enrolled in high school (Figure 4.3). Due to the relatively small size of this subpopulation, 2023 ACS 5-year data were used to ensure sufficient sample size for most groups. Some young adults may have skipped formal education in their home countries to seek employment in the city, while others may have started high school, but not completed it. Analyzing the share without a high school diploma offers valuable insight into a group’s potential for upward mobility. Overall, 9 percent of foreign-born young adults did not have a high school diploma, compared to 5 percent of their native-born counterparts in the city. Four Latin American groups had the highest percentage of young adults without a high school diploma: Salvadorans (35 percent), Mexicans (19 percent), Ecuadorians (16 percent), and Dominicans (12 percent). For most other immigrant groups, the share without a high school diploma was not statistically reliable.
4.4 Economic Well-Being
4.4.1 Median Household Income
The median household income for New York City was $76,900, with native-born households ($85,500) earning significantly more than their foreign-born counterparts ($68,000) (Table 4.5). Among the largest foreign-born groups, immigrants from the United Kingdom had the highest median household income at $161,500, more than twice the city median. Indians and Filipinos had household incomes 50 percent higher than the city median, while Pakistanis had median household incomes 10 percent higher. Non-Hispanic Caribbean groups had median household incomes roughly in line with the city median, while Latin American groups reported the lowest median incomes, with Dominicans at $36,000—less than one-half the city median.
The relatively high median incomes for Indian and Filipino households can be attributed, in part, to the large number of workers, both around 1.5 per household, well above the citywide average of 1.2 workers per household. For others, the large number of workers helped align their household income with the city median. For example, for Salvadorans, having roughly two workers per household brought their income on par with the city median. Similarly, Ecuadorians, with 1.9 workers per household, had a median income ($69,500) at 90 percent of the city average—and above the foreign-born average. In contrast, households headed by Italians, Russians, and Ukrainians had fewer workers, which contributed to lower household incomes.
Household Income and Poverty Status by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
4.4.2 Poverty Status
Since household income typically increases with the number of workers in a household, it is important to consider poverty rates, which take both income and household size into account (Table 4.5). The poverty rate is particularly relevant when a group’s high median household income may mask a wide income range, including both high- and low-income households.
Approximately 18 percent of New York City’s population lives below the poverty line. The poverty rate for the foreign-born population is slightly higher than that of the native-born (18.5 percent compared to 17.7 percent). Some foreign-born groups have poverty rates exceeding 20 percent—Dominicans (28 percent), Russians (25 percent), Chinese (22 percent), Koreans (21 percent), and Mexicans (21 percent). Conversely, some groups have exceptionally low poverty rates of 10 percent or lower, including Guyanese (10 percent), Filipino (10 percent), Indian (8 percent), and British (7 percent) immigrants.
As might be expected, groups with higher median household incomes tend to have lower poverty rates, but this relationship does not hold for all groups, given that the poverty threshold also accounts for household size. Pakistanis had a household income higher than the city median, but a poverty rate that was also higher than the citywide rate, a result of their relatively large average household size. In contrast, Ukrainians, who had among the city’s lowest household incomes—as well as average household size—had a poverty rate below the city average.
4.4.3 Public Assistance Recipiency
Although poverty rates are higher for the foreign-born, a smaller share of foreign-born households receive public assistance (5 percent) compared to native-born households (6 percent). A household is considered to receive public assistance if any member of the household receives any form of monetary aid. Public assistance recipiency varies significantly among immigrant groups. For example, 9 percent of both Dominican and Bangladeshi households received some form of public assistance, a rate substantially higher than the foreign-born average. In contrast, less than 4 percent of Jamaican households received aid.
4.5 Labor Force Characteristics3—Males
4.5.1 Labor Force Participation Rate
The labor force participation rate is the percentage of individuals who are either employed or actively seeking work. Data for individuals ages 16 and over are presented in Table 4.6. In 2023, 69 percent of male New Yorkers in this age group were in the labor force. Among foreign-born males, the participation rate was higher at 71 percent, surpassing the native-born rate by 4 percentage points. Certain groups had notably higher participation rates: 90 percent of Mexican males were in the labor force, while males from the United Kingdom, India, Ghana, Ecuador, and Pakistan each had participation rates of 80 percent or more. Conversely, Italian immigrant males had the lowest participation rate, at 42 percent, and males from Russia and Ukraine also had lower-than-average rates. This is largely due to the higher proportion of older individuals in these groups, for whom labor force participation tends to be lower.
Labor Force Participation and Class of Worker for Males by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
4.5.2 Class of Worker
The class of worker refers to the type of organization that employs an individual, as shown in Table 4.6. Most employed male city residents ages 16 and over were private wage and salary workers (76 percent). Another 12 percent worked for federal, state, or city governments, while the remaining 12 percent were self-employed. The share of foreign-born workers who were employed in private wage and salary positions (76 percent) was similar to that of native-born workers. However, foreign-born individuals were less likely to work for the government and more likely to be self-employed compared to their native-born counterparts.
Entrepreneurship and self-employment have traditionally been closely linked to immigrant communities. Approximately 14 percent of foreign-born male workers in New York City were self-employed, compared to 10 percent of native-born males. However, the self-employment rate varied significantly across different immigrant groups. Russians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, and Koreans had some of the highest self-employment rates, ranging from 20 percent to 25 percent. In contrast, Haitians, Mexicans, and Guyanese had self-employment rates of less than 10 percent.
Although a smaller percentage of foreign-born employed males worked in government compared to native-born males—9 percent and 14 percent, respectively—government employment was notably higher for certain groups. Non-Hispanic Caribbean populations had some of the highest rates of government employment, with Trinidadians and Jamaicans each at 19 percent, and Guyanese and Haitians each at 16 percent, all well above the city average. Among Asian groups, only Bangladeshis (19 percent) and Filipinos (16 percent) had government employment rates higher than the citywide average.
Latin American groups, in contrast, were more likely to work in private wage and salary jobs, with the highest rates seen among Mexicans (88 percent), Salvadorans (83 percent), and Ecuadorians (80 percent).
4.5.3 Occupation
The distribution of occupational categories differed between native-born and foreign-born individuals, as well as among various immigrant groups (Table 4.7). About one-half of native-born employed males ages 16 and over worked in management, business, science, and arts roles, compared to roughly one-third of foreign-born males. On the other hand, the foreign-born had a significantly higher presence in natural resources, construction, and maintenance, with 15 percent of foreign-born males in these occupations, nearly three times the 6 percent share of native-born males. Additionally, foreign-born males were twice as likely to work in production, transportation, and material moving, with 19 percent in these fields compared to just 10 percent of native-born males.
European and Asian immigrant groups tended to have the highest proportions in management, business, science, and arts roles. These groups included British (72 percent), Italian (70 percent), Russian (61 percent), Indian (60 percent), Korean (55 percent), and Filipino (53 percent) workers. This trend aligns with their higher levels of college education, as education is closely tied to occupational outcomes. Conversely, immigrants from the non-Hispanic Caribbean and from Latin America tended to have below average proportion in managerial and professional occupations.
Latin American immigrants were disproportionately represented in natural resources, construction, and maintenance roles. The share of Ecuadorian (38 percent), Salvadoran (34 percent), and Mexican (29 percent) male workers in these occupations was about double the foreign-born average. Latin American groups, apart from Colombians, also had a higher concentration in service occupations. Along with Ghanaian workers (35 percent), roughly 3-in-10 Mexican, Salvadoran, and Dominican workers were employed in service roles, substantially higher than the foreign-born average.
Occupations of Males by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
4.5.4 Earnings
Median Earnings for Males by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
Earnings refer to income derived from employment, either through wages and salary or self-employment income. Table 4.8 presents data on the median earnings of full-time male workers ages 16 and over in the civilian labor force. The median earnings for male workers employed full-time was $67,600, with significant differences based on nativity. Foreign-born males had a median income of $55,400, substantially lower than the $79,400 median for native-born males.
Of the largest immigrant groups, European workers had among the highest earnings. Workers from the United Kingdom and Italy had median earnings of over $100,000 annually, while Russian and Ukrainian workers earned significantly more than the city median. Some Asian groups also had relatively high earnings, with Indians earning over $100,000, and Koreans and Filipinos earning well above the city median. In contrast, earnings for Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and Chinese workers were notably less than the city median.
Non-Hispanic Caribbean workers had earnings ranging from 80 to 100 percent of the city median, while Latin American workers had among the lowest earnings in the city—Salvadorans, Mexicans, and Dominicans earned between 50 percent and 65 percent of the city’s median earnings.
4.6 Labor Force Characteristics—Females
4.6.1 Labor Force Participation Rate
For most major immigrant groups, female labor force participation lagged behind that of their male counterparts. This trend held true even among British women, who had a notably high participation rate of 79 percent, as well as for Russians (47 percent) and Italians (37 percent), who had some of the lowest rates in the city.
Labor force participation among Latin American women generally hovered around or slightly below the city average. Among South Asian groups, Indian women participated at rates close to the city average, while Bangladeshi and Pakistani women had significantly lower rates. This contrasted sharply with South Asian men, who were among the most active in the city’s labor force. The gender gap was especially pronounced among Pakistanis and remained substantial across other South Asian communities as well.
Among non-Hispanic Caribbean immigrants, female labor force participation varied. Guyanese, Haitian, and Trinidadian women participated at rates near the city average, while Jamaican women had a relatively high rate of 65 percent. Notably, Jamaican immigrants had one of the smallest gender gaps in labor force participation among the major groups.
Labor Force Participation and Class of Worker for Females by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
4.6.2 Class of Worker
Foreign-born females were slightly more likely to work in private wage positions compared to their native-born counterparts (79 percent vs. 76 percent) and to be self-employed (9 percent vs. 7 percent), but less likely to be employed in government (12 percent vs. 16 percent) (Table 4.9).
Similar to their male counterparts, women from the non-Hispanic Caribbean had high rates of government employment, including 26 percent of Trinidadians, 19 percent of Jamaicans, and 15 percent of Guyanese; Haitian female workers were at the foreign-born average of 12 percent. This pattern was also seen among Bangladeshi women, who, like Bangladeshi men, had above-average rates of government employment, with 16 percent in government positions.
Female workers from many Latin American countries were disproportionately self-employed, with 26 percent of Salvadorans, 22 percent of Mexicans, 18 percent of Colombians, and 16 percent of Ecuadorians working for themselves.
4.6.3 Occupation
Foreign-born female workers were disproportionately represented in service roles (40 percent), compared to native-born females (15 percent), and underrepresented in management, business, science, and arts positions (39 percent vs. 60 percent) (Table 4.10). However, occupational niches varied by group. European and Asian immigrant females had a high proportion working in management, business, science, and arts roles. These fields accounted for three-quarters of British workers, 68 percent of Filipinas, about 6-in-10 Koreans and Indians, and over one-half of Italian, Russian, and Ukrainian workers. In contrast, Latin American female workers were heavily concentrated in the service sector, with Salvadorans (61 percent), Dominicans (58 percent), Mexicans (53 percent), and Ecuadorians (50 percent) having among the highest shares, though Ghanaian women had the highest proportion, at 69 percent.
Ecuadorian female workers stood out with 16 percent employed in the production, transportation, and material moving sector. Additionally, roughly one-quarter of Russian, Bangladeshi, and Pakistani women worked in sales and office occupations, well above the foreign-born average (17 percent).
Occupations of Females by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
4.6.4 Earnings
Median Earnings for Females by Country of Birth
New York City, 2023
Citywide, median earnings for female workers ages 16 and over employed full-time were $64,700 (Table 4.11). For native-born women, the median was $73,700, while for foreign-born women, it was $52,500.
European and some Asian groups had the highest median earnings, with U.K.-born females earning over $100,000, while Indians, Italians, and Filipinas earned over $80,000, or 24 to 29 percent higher than the city median. Earnings for immigrants from the non-Hispanic Caribbean were uniformly below the city median, while female workers from many Latin American countries had some of the lowest median earnings, with Ecuadorian, Salvadoran, Dominican, and Mexican women earning between 50 and 60 percent of the city median.
Although median earnings for both native- and foreign-born females were lower than that of their male counterparts, women from Ghana, the Philippines, and China earned significantly more than men from each respective country.
4.7 Summary
The demographic, social, and economic characteristics of foreign-born groups reflect the range of human capital they bring to the United States. Immigrant groups often structure their households to leverage their strengths, making it important to consider both their human capital and household configurations. Gaining a deeper understanding of a group’s socioeconomic attainment helps policymakers and program planners better assess how these groups integrate into the city’s social and economic landscape.
This chapter’s analysis of the 20 largest foreign-born groups revealed differences in demographic, social, and economic attainment. Many groups with limited human capital adopted strategies to enhance their household’s economic stability, particularly by including multiple earners within the household. This was notably true for Ecuadorians. In 2023, just two-thirds of Ecuadorians had a high school diploma, and their median earnings were well below the city’s, at roughly 70 percent for males and 50 percent for females. However, Ecuadorian males had high labor force participation rates and the average number of workers in an Ecuadorian household was among the highest in the city. The combined income of these multiple earners brought Ecuadorian household income to 90 percent of the city’s median, with poverty rates around the city average. While this strategy helped improve economic viability, it also led to overcrowding in 26 percent of Ecuadorian households. This overcrowding was driven by the large size of Ecuadorian households (averaging 3.6 members), set against a backdrop of small housing units.
Latin American groups faced challenges across several socioeconomic indicators. For example, among Dominicans only 60 percent had completed high school, labor force participation rates were below the city average, and earnings for both males and females were around 60 percent of the city median. The number of workers in Dominican households was low, household income was roughly one-half the city median, and 28 percent of Dominicans lived in poverty. Salvadorans had lower average educational attainment and male earnings than Dominicans, yet, similar to Ecuadorians, they capitalized on high male labor force participation and multiple household earners to achieve higher household incomes and lower poverty rates than Dominicans. Indeed, Salvadoran households had incomes only slightly below the city median, with poverty rates notably lower than the city average; however, nearly one-third of Salvadoran households experienced overcrowding.
English language proficiency and government employment are a distinguishing feature for many groups from the non-Hispanic Caribbean. While just over one-half of Haitians were proficient in English, English language proficiency was nearly universal for Jamaicans, Guyanese, and Trinidadians as they come from countries where English is widely spoken. Compared to the overall foreign-born population, they had a lower proportion of college graduates but generally had an above average proportion of high school graduates. English language proficiency and a solid basic education have allowed a large share of immigrants from the non-Hispanic Caribbean to use employment in government as a path to upward mobility. Household income for these groups was around the city median or slightly lower and poverty was significantly below the city average.
Among European groups, immigrants from the United Kingdom had higher levels of socioeconomic attainment than the overall foreign- and native-born populations. British male and female immigrants were highly educated, had among the highest labor force participation rates, the largest proportion of managers and professionals, and the highest earnings in the city. Labor force participation for other European groups was generally lower than the city average, as was the number of workers in each household, resulting in household incomes below the city median. Nevertheless, except for Russians, poverty was below the city average. For many Europeans, higher earnings made living in small households a viable option. This contrasted with the resource pooling seen in larger Latin American households, where multiple earners typically each earned less than the city median.
Foreign-born Asians had a range of socioeconomic attainment. Over 70 percent of Chinese immigrants had limited English proficiency, only 62 percent had completed high school, their earnings were below the city median, and they had one of the highest poverty rates among Asian groups. In contrast, nearly three-quarters of Filipinos had a college degree, as did 64 percent of Indians and 57 percent of Koreans. Well over one-half of males and females in these groups were in management positions, with earnings well above the city median. High earnings resulted in Indian and Filipino household income that was 50 percent higher than the city median, which was partly due to the large number of workers in these households, and a low poverty rate in the single digits. Although Koreans displayed favorable educational characteristics, more than one-half had limited English proficiency, which likely prompted one-fifth of males to engage in self-employment as a means of upward mobility. Similarly, high rates of limited English proficiency likely led over one-fifth of Bangladeshi and Pakistani males to opt for self-employment. Bangladeshi immigrants, like their counterparts from the non-Hispanic Caribbean, have also found a niche in government, with 19 percent of male workers and 16 percent of female workers in such positions. While Bangladeshis and Pakistanis earned below the city median, the presence of multiple earners in their households resulted in household incomes that were either close to the city median (Bangladesh) or above it (Pakistan), though this is also associated with overcrowding.
Newly arrived immigrants often face a period of adjustment to the U.S. labor market. Many lack English proficiency and may not have completed high school. For those with professional backgrounds, their foreign credentials may not be recognized, leading to lower-paying jobs. However, over time, many immigrants gain language skills and acquire U.S.-based educational and professional credentials that open the door to higher-level positions. Immigrant groups with the highest socioeconomic attainment often have higher proportions arriving with a college degree. Among recently arrived immigrants, around three-quarters or more from the United Kingdom, Russia, the Philippines, India, Italy, and Korea held a college degree, giving them a significant advantage—though it may take time for them to find their professional niches. Even immigrants with lower educational attainment, however, are often able to carve out economic niches and housing strategies to support themselves and their families.
Statistical significance is determined at the p < 0.1 level. That is, differences are deemed to be significant if there is less than a 10 percent probability that the difference between the two estimates is due to chance.↩︎
The recently arrived foreign-born tend to be younger than all foreign-born residents. Among New York City’s foreign-born who arrived in the United States between 2010 and 2023, 15 percent were under the age of 18, 60 percent were between the ages of 18 and 44, 19 percent were between the ages of 45 and 64, and 6 percent were 65 and over. The median age for the recently arrived was 34 years, compared with 50 years for all foreign-born residents.↩︎
The labor force participation rate was calculated for those 16 years and over. Data on occupation and class of worker were determined for those ages 16 and over who were employed in the civilian labor force. Earnings were calculated for those ages 16 and over who were employed in the civilian labor force, worked at least 35 hours a week (full-time), and had non-zero earnings.↩︎